Congress, invoking its authority under the 14th Amendment, should make clear that “excessive fines” by States and localities are civil rights violations of interest to Federal courts and the Department of Justice.

When is a fine “excessive”? When it is grossly in excess of the economic damage or risk of the fined activity.

Governments like Pagedale that cannot subsist without excessive fines should be dissolved, with understanding that county government can pick up their worthwhile functions.